General Aviation

This blog is about General Aviation and Flight Training. So far I have been writing about flying lessons in an airplane, as this is what I have been involved in as a professional pilot and flight instructor. Even though before I got into airplanes, I used to fly gliders. And during my own flight training I got me an opportunity to sky dive, which was a total blast!

As a matter of fact, a few weeks ago I decided to drive down to the Lodi, CA airport, which is right off highway 99, and got some information on taking some professional sky diving lessons. I was hoping to be able to do this before I get back to working full time again. And today, a friend and a former student Christophe (from France) sent me a link to this cool Hang Glider pilot’s video on YouTube, and now I am thinking….:-)

I want to be that Guy – Nicholas Cage

Guest Post: By Stephen Hopson

Today I was going to write about the success of the “Flight to Hartford” project with my church (you can find it listed under my name) and tie it into the universal laws of attraction and giving. But something else came up, taking priority.

I just learned that a man who helped me make my dreams of becoming a pilot seven years ago recently passed away. While I understand most of you didn’t know him, I want to share the story of how we met and the incredible impact he had on my life. I believe and hope you’ll be touched even if you’re not a pilot yourself.

We could all learn how to give selflessly like he did. I don’t know whether or not he was aware of the universal laws of attraction and giving but he was sure a good model for someone who did.

Here’s the story.

Right around the turn of the 21st century, I was still in the process of building my speaking and writing career so I was looking for a part-time job to pay the bills in between professional speaking engagements.

It was also at this time when I was already a month or two into flight training but my original instructor was offered a new job in Colorado so I was forced to find a replacement elsewhere.

One day, I had an inspiration to visit other airports to see if I could get a job at a place where they taught people how to fly. I thought, “Why not? Might as well shoot two birds with one stone.”

After visiting one or two and being told nothing was available, I decided to venture a little further out and try Oakland Troy airport, a 30 minute drive from my home.

It was nestled among a fast growing metropolitan area (Troy, Michigan, USA) complete with a new strip mall, new apartments, a giant Wal-Mart and an assortment of other industrial buildings. The only area with open space was a small golf course nearby. The airport was big enough to accommodate corporate jets yet small enough not to require an air traffic control tower.

Pulling onto the newly repaved airport parking lot, I noticed a small circular white terminal building up ahead.

“That must be where I can find the personnel department,” I thought.

Upon setting foot inside, I was surprised to see only a couple of people milling about, drinking coffee and reading the paper. A jovial looking man with rosy cheeks was pouring himself a steaming hot cup of coffee.

Seeing that I was a new face in the place, he set his coffee down and came barreling toward me at 800 mph with an outstretched hand. It startled the heck out of me.

After regaining my composure, I made the mistake of accepting his bone-crushing handshake, causing me to wince in pain.

Trying to hide my pained expression, I said, “Hi, my name is Stephen Hopson and I’m looking for the personnel department.”

“And I’m Don Solms,” he boomed. He was still pumping my now lifeless hand.

Finally releasing his grip, he said, “Oh, you want a job here?” His face brightened even more, if that were possible.

“Yes, do you know of any openings?” I was massaging my fatally injured hand, opening and closing it repeatedly.

“I think they might be looking for someone. HEY, let me take you over to the other building to Susan’s office. She’s the personnel director. COME ON!”

Just before going in her office, Don thrust his business card in my hand and said cheerfully, “Good luck. Shoot me an email later. You’ll have to come over to my hangar where I keep my plane. Okay?”

Keeping both hands within the safety confines of my pockets, I said, “Thanks Don.” I could tell he wanted another hand shake. Fat chance buddy!

Susan then introduced me to two guys named Carl Barnes and Jason Zimmerman. They were both young men who were in charge running flight services. The interview went well and I ended up being hired. As a line service rep, I would be responsible for fueling and towing airplanes, among other things. It marked the beginning of an incredible 4 years at that airport.

One day, Don was hanging out at his hangar where he kept his prized Skylane. It was sunny and breezy. His hangar door was wide open, allowing cool air to swirl around inside. It was an open invitation to anyone who happened to come by. Spotting me in the fuel truck (I was motoring my way back to the terminal after fueling a customer’s plane), he waved me in and offered me a cold soda.

Ten minutes into the conversation, my dreams of becoming a pilot somehow surfaced. I told him that I was actually looking for a new instructor and was trying to save up some money to resume flight training.

Before he could respond, my vibrating pager distracted me with a new text message. There was another fuel order and I had to get going.

“Don, I’ve gotta go – they are telling me to fuel another airplane. See ya later!”

As I got up to leave, he grabbed my arm and gave it a powerful squeeze. My mind did a quick flashback to that day in the terminal. This time his eyes were sparkling like stars. And he was grinning stupidly.

I was in no way prepared for what he was about to say next.

“I would be honored to be your flight instructor and I won’t charge you for my time. All you’d be responsible for is the cost of renting an airplane.”

My God, an angel was in my midst and I knew it.

Absentmindedly rubbing my arms to stem the tide of goose bumps that was spreading like wildfire all over my body, I said, “Wow, really? Thanks man!”

Then he turned serious for a moment and said, “When are you free for your first lesson?”

Thrown off balance since I didn’t expect it to happen so soon, I said, “Well, how about tomorrow?”

“Okay, you got it! ” he thundered. Then he winked as if he were saying, “our secret.”

The rest was history. He was true to his word. Months of flight training with this man proved to be quite an adventure.

He was best known as a jokester, even in the cockpit. Now you have to picture this in your mind. There we were, me, a deaf student pilot and him, a 250 pound flight instructor with a large football frame who liked to poke his elbow at me every time he made a joke. And get this…he thought everything he said was funny!

Ouch!

Aside from his wry sense humor, he was one of the most patient flight instructors I would ever have. Every time we got ready for a lesson, he’d explain in the classroom what we were going to do and then we’d go up and fly.

If he wanted to explain something while we were flying, he’d take control of the airplane while I read his lips and then we’d resume the lesson. Don was one of those rare flight instructors who did not care about building flight time for a future career with the airlines. He was in it for the long haul. In fact, it wasn’t until after 50 plus years of flying and instructing that he finally hung up his wings last year.

He truly enjoyed the fine art of teaching and it showed. He never yelled at his students like some flight instructors who think they are drill sergeants with big egos. His students were his prized possessions and he treated all of them with the respect they deserved.

On December 3, 2000 Don had one big surprise up his sleeve. It was a calm, sunny day. We were scheduled to do some practice takeoffs and landings. After doing three of them, he instructed me to taxi over to the ramp by the white terminal building where I first met him months earlier.

Trying to hide his delight, he said, “Let me see your logbook for a sec.”

Arching my right arm as far back as I could behind the front seats, I snatched the logbook out of my bulging black flight bag and gave it to him.

Suddenly it dawned on me that today was “the day.” He was going to sign me off for my first solo flight!

I felt an involuntary shudder.

After scribbling his signature, he turned and looked at me. His brown eyes were sparkling again. The smile was even bigger than before. He was absolutely giddy, like a child on Christmas morning.

“So Mr. Hopson, are you ready?” he thundered.

“Yes, Don, get the hell out!” I thundered back, half joking.

Roaring like a lion, Don heaved his 250 pound football frame out of the airplane, closed and locked the door with a loud click. Then he did something that forever burned in my mind.

Like a five-star general sending his young fighter pilots off to war, he gave me a smart salute!

I almost burst to tears. It was deeply touching. No one ever did that to me before. Despite being more than ready to solo, I still felt a touch of trepidation so I returned the favor with a slightly shaky hand. Thank God he was too far away to see that.

Taxiing into position on the runway, I took a deep breath and firewalled the throttle causing the airplane to literally leap into the air. I remember thinking, “so this is what everyone means when they say the plane will bounce into the air without your instructor!”

Within seconds after takeoff, all the training kicked in and it was just another exercise around the airport pattern. The only difference was…well, I was alone.

After three takeoffs and landings, the venerable flight instructor waved me over and gave the signal to cut the engine. He stood there like a proud papa and motioned for me to go over to where he was standing. Instead of shaking my hand, he wrapped his huge arms around me and gave me a bone crushing hug. But, hey, I didn’t mind.

Five months later, one day short of my birthday, he finally signed me off to take my pilot certification flight test (i.e. “checkride”) with Mary Carpenter, one of the toughest but fairest FAA examiners from the area. He and Terry Ryan (his airplane co-owner at the time), both accompanied me on the flight to Pontiac airport, a mere 10 minutes away where the examiner’s office was located. He wanted to be there when Mrs. Carpenter and I were done with the checkride.

Two hours later, the examiner walked briskly into the waiting area, smiled and said, “Congratulations, Stephen passed with flying colors!”

Don roared his approval.

We all went out to have our pictures taken by the airplane and that’s when he said to me, “I’ll sit in the back seat on the return flight. Congratulations Mr. Pilot in Command!”

It was the greatest, grandest gesture another human being could ever have bestowed upon me. I’ll never forget it. He was that kind of man. Don believed in me so much that he was literally the only person at that airport who believed I would one day become the world’s first deaf instrument rated pilot.

Six years later, I did it, defying every naysayer in the aviation business. In February 06, I became the world’s first deaf instrument rated pilot. For that I salute Don Solms for believing in me.

Here’s to you Don!

Food for thought: Have you considered the power of the law of giving and helped make someone else’s dream come true this week?

Profoundly deaf since birth, Stephen Hopson is a former award-winning stockbroker turned motivational speaker, author and pilot. He works with organizations that are ready to explore and overcome adversity because no one is immune from it – adversity does not discriminate. His professional speaking services, Obstacle Illusions, include fun and passionate presentations, especially the story of how his fifth grade teacher forever changed his young life with THAT’S RIGHT STEPHEN!

You can view his newly re-designed website at http://www.sjhopson.com.

Stephen also maintains a blog called “Adversity University“

Have you been thinking about learning to fly an airplane? Or have you thought about it in the past? How about, have you ever dreamed about piloting an airplane? If you answered yes to any of the above questions, then go ahead and read on.

Learning to fly an airplane is fun, easy, and a mission possible in most people’s case. Here, read the questions below that you should ask yourself if you ever considered learning to fly or getting yourself a pilot’s certificate.

1. Motivation – What do I need to learn how to fly for; pleasure, business or as a career?

2. Location -Where should I go get my flight training done?

3. Source – What type of flight training provider would be best for me?

4. Scheduling – Full time, part time, formal or informal, what type of scheduling would work the best for me?

5. Financial – How am I going to pay for my training? Would I need financial aid, student loan, personal loan, or some other type of financial assistance?

The reason you should ask these questions to yourself is because it helps you chose the right program, and also helps you understand the budgets and time / effort commitment required. I’ll give you some ballpark numbers here to think about:

If you want to learn how to fly for pleasure, you are looking at about a total of 60-70 hours of flight training time, and about 40-50 hours of ground studies, and to get the best bang for the buck, you should expect about 10-12 hours of training time per week. If it is for pleasure, then you really can simply take the training at your own convenience, or go to one of those vacation / accelerated training places with or without your family. Cost of the training will depend on many variables, like when, where and which aircraft. But for most people, you are looking at about $6000 to $10,000 price range. Of course, there are ways to make it cheaper as well as luxurious and high end as well.

For business reasons, the basic training as above is still required, but what changes is the motivating factor, and possibly some tax advantages, both for training and then actually renting / owning an aircraft and the related cost factors (operating expenses).

As a career? Well, now that is a very detailed topic, I can write a few books on it. Write me an email for any specific questions, and subscribe to this blog (RSS Feed). I write about all this here just about everyday. So read and educate yourself. Here, read these 2 posts for starters: Top 20 Career Options as a Pilot, and 101 General Aviation and Flight Training Scholarships.

Where to get your flight training? Options could be: a local flight training school, a flying club, an independent flight instructor (or CFI as we call them), a pilot flight instructor friend, a vacation / accelerated flight training gig, formal accredited flight training institutes, military academies, aviation college or university program, and so on.

Like I mentioned in one of my earlier articles, we pilots like to use a lot of acronyms and memory aids to help us remember things in an easy and organized manner. Not that we are low on RAM or something, it’s just a way of filing and organizing information in our brains so it is easily accessible, and gets carried out as a well rehearsed orchestra with no chance of forgetting anything. Planned actions is another way of describing the usage of these acronyms.

One of the most commonly used acronym in IFR, or instrument flying, if called the 5 Ts:

1. Turn – Turn to the Course Heading
2. Time – Start the Time
3. Twist – Tune the Radio (VOR etc) and/or Twist the CDI
4. Throttle – Reduce the throttle; Go Down (descent) or Slow Down
5. Talk – Talk to the ATC

The 5 Ts are to be carried out in the order or preference noted above. Note, that Talk is all the way down the list. In other words, if you remember the Aviate, Navigate, Communicate, Manage checklist, talking comes after we have the aircraft under proper control and it is going where it is supposed to go. A lot of novice pilots in training initially have the tendency to prioritize the talking part. No need to buddy. Talking is at the bottom of our list.

With practice, you’ll be able to carry out all these procedures as a second nature. And the key word here is practice. And this is where the chair flying or dry flying comes in very handy. We will talk about the chair flying in one of our future articles. Here, watch this video and see if this makes any sense. If not, watch it again, and again until it does. If you have any questions, feel free to post them in the comments section below.

A few years ago I went to Norcal Aviation to get my seaplane rating. At that time I could only afford to get a single engine add-on rating. So, I chose to get a Commercial add-on rating, training in the only Piper super-cub in the world on floats. Terry, the owner of the Norcal Aviation, and an FAA DPE (examiner) was very kind, and arranged for an accelerated course for me so I don’t lose too much time away from work and family. Within 3 days I was ready, and get my commercial add-on seaplane rating on my ATP certificate. The only reason why I could not do the add-on at the ATP level was because the Piper super-cub did not have any Navigation instruments, so no instrument approaches, so no ATP.

Then about a couple years later, I went back to Norcal Aviation again, and this time I did my ATP add-on on the only Piper Apache on floats. Excellent experience again. And what a beautiful airplane!

During my seaplane ratings, one thing among many others that I learnt was, get on the step. This is when the seaplane gets moving on the water for the purpose of take-off, you move the control yoke forward to get the trailing edge of the float out of the water and the entire float ride the top layer of the water. This reduces the drag many times, and help the aircraft accelerate to the normal take-off speed as quickly as possible. If you do not get the aircraft on the step (i.e. ride the water) the aircraft will never be able to accelerate fast enough for a take-off.

In the example video here, this de Havilland Beaver pilot was never able to, or for whatever reason, never got the aircraft on the step. If you notice, the trailing edge of the floats never got out of the water. So the aircraft never had enough speed for a normal and safe take-off. I can’t say enjoy the video this time, but please watch it and learn.

In one of my previous posts I talked about an ol’ pilot rule-of-thumb (we also call them memory aid) called “Whiskey Compass”. This was in relation to Alcohol and Aviation. Most of the newer generation pilots know this rule as “Bottle to Throttle”. Well the rule is 8 hours from bottle to throttle, and you can read more about it by clicking here to go to my other post.

This post is to explain a bit more about why the rule back then was known as“Whiskey Compass”.

One theory is that back then the compass, unlike nowadays, did not have kerosene in it, but was filled up with alcohol for the magnet to float around freely and to provide lubrication for the pivoting point. Also, compass was the only, or at least primary means of navigation. There were no VORs, or NDBs. So, if there would be alcohol in the compass, it would not work. And this was our memory aid – Whiskey Compass!

You consume whiskey, then stay away from the compass, i.e. don’t fly!

The second theory has got nothing to do with flying drunk, but still explains the origin of “Whiskey Compass”. As the compass had kerosene fluid in it; it was called, and as a matter of fact, it still is called a Wet Compass. As in aviation Phonetics, Whiskey is for W, so that explains Whiskey Compass, or W-Compass.

Maybe in the next article we will talk about the Whiskey Compass (wet compass in this case) a bit more.

I was reading an article about when do you have to report a DUI or DWI related action (in a motor vehicle) to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)? You can read it here. It is true that any arrest, and/or conviction has to be reported to the FAA within 60 days, as required by FAR 61.15 . Some pilots have a misunderstanding that they only need to report the conviction and not the arrest, and, the others think that they have to report only when they go back for their Pilot Medical Certificate renewal. Both these are far from the truth.

Another thing we need to understand is that honesty here is always the best policy. FAA does occasionally check the National Driver Register against pilot, mechanic and other FAA certificate holder names. And if you have failed to report your incident within the applicable time frame, which is 60 days, and FAA comes across your name during it’s driver record search, you will definitely have something much bigger to worry about.

It is common for the FAA to not take any action against the offending pilot on the first instance of a driving DUI/DWI. Subsequent ones, I don’t know. I have not come across such a  pilot or a mechanic yet! If someone out there knows of such a dare-devil, please drop me a comment there with a contact information so I can enhance my knowledge from his/her experiences.

8 hours bottle to throttle is the minimum, as per FAR 91.17 .  That’s right, no matter how small the sip, you stay away from that ramp until at least 8 hours has elapsed. And that’s not all. 04% alcohol concentration in the blood or breath is enough to get you in trouble with the FAA as well. Perhaps it takes less that that .04% concentration for you to be affected. Or have you considered how badly you’re likely to perform while hung over? Quite a few studies have documented the loss of performance, judgment, and reaction time you can anticipate even after your blood alcohol content has dropped back down to acceptable levels.

So, remember, alcohol and aviation, for that matter just about anything physical, , yes that too, is not a good combination and should be avoided at all times. Alcohol is to be consumed and enjoyed very responsibly.

Oh by the way, the ol’ pilot rule of the thumb to remember this (in case you are a forgetful person) is called Whiskey Compass rule. We’ll talk about it some other day.

Breathing is one of the most automatic things we do — over 20,000 times a day. Each breath does two things for our body. It expels carbon dioxide when we exhale, and takes in oxygen when we inhale. It’s a delicate balance.

Exercise or stress increases the production of carbon dioxide, so we breathe faster to eliminate it and take in more oxygen at a greater rate. Because of the effects of gravity, the amount of air containing oxygen is greater at sea level.

For example, the pressure at sea level is twice that found at 18,000 feet MSL. Although the percentage of oxygen contained in air at 18,000 feet is identical to that at sea level (a little over 20%), the amount of air our lungs take in with each breath contains half the oxygen found at sea level. Breathing faster or more deeply doesn’t help. In fact, because you’re consciously over-riding a system that is normally automatic, you’ll be compounding the problem by exhaling too much carbon dioxide.

Supplemental Oxygen

The solution is simple, familiar to most pilots, and required by FAR 91.211: supplemental oxygen. This regulation specifies a 30-minute limit before oxygen is required on flights between 12,500 and 14,000 feet MSL, and immediately upon exposure to cabin pressures above 14,000 feet MSL. For best protection, you are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000 feet MSL.

At night, because vision is particularly sensitive to diminished oxygen, a prudent rule is to use supplemental oxygen when flying above 6,000 feet MSL. So, when you fly at high altitudes, supplemental oxygen is the only solution. That’s because supplemental oxygen satisfies the twin demands of having enough oxygen to meet your body’s demands and a breathing rate that excretes the right amount of carbon dioxide.

Hypoxia

Unfortunately, our body doesn’t give us reliable signals at the onset of hypoxia — oxygen starvation — unless we have received special training to recognize the symptoms. In fact, it’s quite the contrary. The brain is the first part of the body to reflect a diminished oxygen supply, and the evidence of that is usually a loss of judgment.

Hypoxia tests

Altitude chamber tests, in which high altitude flight conditions are duplicated, have shown that some people in an oxygen deficient environment actually experience a sense of euphoria — a feeling of increased well-being. These subjects can’t write their name intelligibly, or even sort a deck of cards by suits…yet, they think they’re doing just fine! Such is the insidious nature of oxygen deprivation. It sneaks up on the unwary and steals the first line of sensory protection — the sense that something is wrong — dreadfully wrong.

The higher you go

Bear in mind, the progressive reduction of oxygen per breath will continue the higher you go. Flying above a layer of clouds that doesn’t look too high, or flying in the mountains on a clear day — are the very environments that have caused many good “flat-land” pilots to get into trouble.

Symptoms

Everyone’s response to hypoxia varies. Unless, as we’ve stated, you’ve had special training to recognize its symptoms, hypoxia doesn’t give you much warning. It steals up on you, giving your body subtle clues. The order of symptoms varies among individuals: increased breathing rate, headache, lightheadedness, dizziness, tingling or warm sensations, sweating, poor coordination, impaired judgment, tunnel vision, and euphoria. Unless detected early and dealt with, hypoxia can be a real killer.

Caution and safety

So, don’t decide you’ll try to fly over that range of mountains, thinking you’ll turn back if you start to feel badly. You may feel great…until it’s too late! Use supplemental oxygen.

Smoking and altitude

A Western state pilot lived to tell about this one. Cruising at 13,500 feet MSL over mountainous terrain in his light single, he took a deep drag on his cigarette and next remembered being in a screaming dive with just enough altitude left in which to pull out! That deep drag replaced precious oxygen in his brain with carbon monoxide…and he passed out.

Briefly…

• When you breathe, you inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
• With each normal breath, you inhale about one-half liter of air, 20% of which is oxygen.
• At 18,000’ MSL, you have half the sea level air pressure; hence, only half the oxygen.
• Oxygen starvation first affects the brain; judgment is impaired, so you may not know you are in trouble.
• We all react differently to the effects of hypoxia. Only physiological training can safely “break the code” for you.

Physiological training for pilots

The effects of hypoxia can be safely experienced under professional supervision at the Civil Aeromedical Institute’s altitude chamber in Oklahoma City and at 14 cooperating military installations throughout the U.S. If you would like to attend a one-day physiological training course, ask your FAA Accident Prevention Specialist for AC Form 3150-7. You’ll learn to recognize your symptoms of hypoxia. It could mean the difference between life and death.

Medical Facts for Pilots Publication AM-400-90/2 (Revised May 2004) Prepared by Federal Aviation Administration Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Aerospace Medical Education Division

Vision is a pilot’s most important sense to obtain reference information during flight. Most pilots are familiar with the optical aspects of the eye. Before we start flying, we know whether we have normal uncorrected vision, whether we are farsighted or nearsighted, or have other visual problems. Most of us who have prescription lenses—contacts or eyeglasses—have learned to carry an extra set of glasses with us when we fly, just as a backup. But, vision in flight is far more than a lesson in optics. Seeing involves the transmission of light energy (images) from the exterior surface of the cornea to the interior surface of the retina (inside the eye) and the transference of these signals to the brain.

Anatomy of an Eye

• Light from an object enters the eye through the cornea and then continues through the pupil.
• The opening (dilation) and closing (constriction) of the pupil is controlled by the iris, which is the colored part of the eye. The function of the pupil is similar to that of the diaphragm of a photographic camera: to control the amount of light.
• The lens is located behind the pupil and its function is to focus light on the surface of the retina.
• The retina is the inner layer of the eyeball that contains photosensitive cells called rods and cones. The function of the retina is similar to that of the film in a photographic camera: to record an image.
  
• The cones are located in higher concentrations than rods in the central area of the retina known as the macula, that measures about 4.5 mm in diameter. The exact center of the macula has a very small depression called the fovea that contains cones only. The cones are used for day or high-intensity light vision. They are involved with central vision to detect detail, perceive color, and identify far-away objects.
• The rods are located mainly in the periphery of the retina — an area that is about 10,000 times more sensitive to light than the fovea. Rods are used for low-light intensity or night vision and are involved with peripheral vision to detect position references including objects (fixed and moving) in shades of grey, but cannot be used to detect detail or to perceive color.
• Light energy (an image) enters the eyes and is transformed by the cones and rods
  into electrical signals that are carried by the optic nerve to the posterior area of the brain (occipital lobes). This part of the brain interprets the electrical signals and creates a mental image of the actual object that was seen by the person.

The Anatomical Blind Spot

The area where the optic nerve connects to the retina in the back of each eye is known as the optic disk. There is a total absence of cones and rods in this area, and, consequently, each eye is completely blind in this spot. Under normal binocular vision conditions this is not a problem, because an object cannot be in the blind spot of both eyes at the same time. On the other hand, where the field of vision of one eye is obstructed by an object (windshield post), a visual target (another aircraft) could fall in the blind spot of the other eye and remain undetected.

The “Night Blind Spot” appears under conditions of low ambient illumination due to the absence of rods in the fovea, and involves an area 5 to 10 degrees wide
in the center of the visual field. Therefore, if an object is viewed directly at night, it may go undetected or it may fade away after initial detection due to the night blind spot.

The Fovea

The fovea is the small depression located in the exact center of the macula that contains a high concentration of cones but no rods, and this is where our vision is most sharp. While the normal field of vision for each eye is about 135 degrees vertically and about 160 degrees horizontally, only the fovea has the ability to perceive and send clear, sharply focused visual images to the brain. This foveal field of vision represents a small conical area of only about 1 degree. To fully appreciate how small a one-degree field is, and to demonstrate foveal field, take a quarter from your pocket and tape it to a flat piece of glass, such as a window. Now back off 4 ½ feet from the mounted quarter and close one eye. The area of your field of view covered by the quarter is a one-degree field, similar to your foveal vision.

Now we know that you can see a lot more than just that one-degree cone. But, do you know how little detail you see outside of that foveal cone? For example, outside of a ten-degree cone, concentric to the foveal one-degree cone, you see only about one-tenth of what you can see within the foveal field. In terms of an oncoming aircraft, if you are capable of seeing an aircraft within your foveal field at 5,000 feet away, with peripheral vision you would detect it at 500 feet. Another example: using foveal vision we can clearly identify an aircraft flying at a distance of 7 miles; however, using peripheral vision (outside the foveal field) we would require a closer distance of .7 of a mile to recognize the same aircraft. That is why when you were learning to fly, your instructor always told you to “put your head on a swivel,” to keep your eyes scanning the wide expanse of space in front of your aircraft.

Types of Vision

• Photopic Vision. During daytime or high intensity artificial illumination conditions, the eyes rely on central vision (foveal cones) to perceive and interpret sharp images and color of objects.Mesopic Vision. Occurs at dawn, dusk, or under full moonlight levels, and is characterized by decreasing visual acuity and color vision. Under these conditions, a combination of central (foveal cones) and peripheral (rods) vision is required to maintain appropriate visual performance.
• Scotopic Vision. During nighttime, partial moonlight, or low intensity artificial illumination conditions, central vision (foveal cones) becomes ineffective to maintain visual acuity and color perception. Under these conditions, if you look directly at an object for more than a few seconds, the image of the object fades away completely (night blind spot). Peripheral vision (off-center scanning) provides the only means of seeing very dim objects in the dark.

Factors Affecting Vision

• The greater the object size, ambient illumination, contrast, viewing time, and atmospheric clarity, the better the visibility of such an object. During the day, objects can be identified easier at a great distance with good detail resolution. At night, the identification range of dim objects is limited and the detail resolution is poor.
• Surface references or the horizon may become obscured by smoke, fog, smog, haze, dust, ice particles, or other phenomena, although visibility may be above Visual Flight Rule (VFR) minimums. This is especially true at airports located adjacent to large bodies of water or sparsely populated areas where few, if any, surface references are available. Lack of horizon or surface reference is common on over-water flights, at night, and in low-visibility conditions.
• Excessive ambient illumination, especially from light reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain can produce glare that may cause uncomfortable squinting, eye tearing, and even temporary blindness.
• Presence of uncorrected refractive eye disorders such as myopia (nearsightedness — impaired focusing of distant objects), hyperopia (farsightedness — impaired focusing of near objects), astigmatism (impaired focusing of objects in different meridians), or presbyopia (age-related impaired focusing of near objects).
• Self-imposed stresses such as self-medication, alcohol consumption (including hangover effects), tobacco use (including withdrawal), hypoglycemia, and sleep deprivation/fatigue can seriously impair your vision.
• Inflight exposure to low barometric pressure without the use of supplemental oxygen (above 10,000 ft during the day and above 5,000 ft at night) can result in hypoxia, which impairs visual performance.
• Other factors that may have an adverse effect on visual performance include: windscreen haze, improper illumination of the cockpit and/or instruments, scratched and/or dirty instrumentation, use of cockpit red lighting, inadequate cockpit environmental control (temperature and humidity), inappropriate sunglasses and/or prescription glasses/contact lenses, and sustained visual workload during flight.

Focusing

The natural ability to focus your eyes is critical to flight safety. It is important to know that normal eyes may require several seconds to refocus when switching views between near (reading charts), intermediate (monitoring instruments), and distant objects (looking for traffic or external visual references).

Fatigue can lead to impaired visual focusing, which causes the eyes to overshoot or undershoot the target, and can also affect a pilot’s ability to quickly change focus between near, intermediate, and distant vision. The most common symptoms of visual fatigue include blurred vision, excessive tearing, “heavy” eyelid sensation, frontal or orbital headaches, and burning, scratchy, or dry eye sensations.

Distance focus, without a specific object to look at, tends to diminish rather quickly. If you fly over water or under hazy conditions with the horizon obscured or
between cloud layers at night, your distance focus relaxes after about 60-80 seconds.

If there is nothing specific on which to focus, your eyes revert to a relaxed intermediate focal distance (10 to 30 ft). This means that you are looking without actually seeing anything, which is dangerous. The answer to this phenomenon is to condition your eyes for distant vision. Focus on the most distant object that you can see, even if it’s just a wing tip. Do this before you begin scanning the sky in front of you. As you scan, make sure you repeat this re-focusing exercise often.

Dark Adaptation or Night Vision Adaptation

Dark adaptation is the process by which the eyes adapt for optimal night visual acuity under conditions of low ambient illumination. The eyes require about 30 to 45 minutes to fully adapt to minimal lighting conditions. The lower the starting level of illumination, the more rapidly complete dark adaptation is achieved. To minimize the time necessary to achieve complete dark adaptation and to maintain it, you should:

• avoid inhaling carbon monoxide from smoking or exhaust fumes
• get enough Vitamin A in your diet
• adjust instrument and cockpit lighting to the lowest level possible
• avoid prolonged exposure to bright lights use supplemental oxygen when flying at night above 5,000 ft (MSL)

If dark-adapted eyes are exposed to a bright light source (searchlights, landing lights, flares, etc.) for a period in excess of 1 second, night vision is temporarily
impaired. Exposure to aircraft anti-collision lights does not impair night vision adaptation because the intermittent flashes have a very short duration (less than 1 second).

Visual Scanning

Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a very important factor in avoiding midair collisions, and it should cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Most of us are instinctively alert for potential head-on encounters with another aircraft. Actually, a study of 50 midair collisions revealed that only 8% were head-on. However, 42% were collisions between aircraft heading in the same direction. So, compared with opposite-direction traffic, your chances of having a midair are over 5 times greater with an aircraft you are overtaking or one that is overtaking you. It is necessary for you to develop and practice a technique that allows the efficient scanning of the surrounding airspace and the monitoring of cockpit instrumentation as well. You can accomplish this by performing a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central (foveal) visual field. To scan effectively, scan from right to left or left to right. Begin scanning at the top of the visual field in front of you and then move your eyes inward toward the bottom. Use a stop-turn-stop type eye motion. The duration of each stop should be at least 1 second but not longer than 2 to 3 seconds.

To see and identify objects under conditions of low ambient illumination, avoid looking directly at an object for more than 2 to 3 seconds (because it will bleach out). Instead, use the off-center viewing that consists of searching movements of the eyes (10 degrees above, below, or to either side) to locate an object, and small eye movements to keep the object in sight. By switching your eyes from one off-center point to another every 2 to 3 seconds, you will continue to detect the object in the peripheral field of vision. The reason for using off-center viewing has to do with the location of rods in the periphery of the retina for night or low-intensity night vision (peripheral), and their absence in the center of the retina (fovea). Pilots should practice this off-center scanning technique to improve safety during night flights.

A Word about Monocular Vision

A pilot with one eye (monocular), or with effective visual acuity equivalent to monocular (i.e. best corrected distant visual acuity in the poorer eye is no better than 20/200), may be considered for medical certification, any class, through the special issuance procedures of Part 67 (14CFR67.401) if:

• A 6-month period has elapsed to allow for adaptation to monocularity; during the adaptation period to monovision, an individual may experience hazy vision and occasional loss of balance.
• A complete evaluation by an eye specialist, as reported on FAA Form 8500-7, Report of Eye Evaluation, reveals no pathology of either eye that could affect the stability of the findings.
• Uncorrected distant visual acuity in the better eye is 20/200 or better and is corrected to 20/20 or better by lenses of no greater power than ±3.5 diopters spherical equivalent.
• The applicant passes an FAA medical flight test.

A Word about Contact Lenses

Use of contact lenses has been permitted to satisfy the distant visual acuity requirements for a civil airman medical certificate since 1976. However, monovision
contact lenses, a technique of fitting older patients who require reading glasses with one contact lens for distant vision and the other lens for near vision, ARE NOT ACCEPTABLE for piloting an aircraft.

The use of a contact lens in one eye for distant visual acuity and a lens in the other eye for near visual acuity is not acceptable because this procedure makes the pilot alternate his/her vision; that is, a person uses one eye at a time, suppressing the other, and consequently impairs binocular vision and depth perception. Since this is not a permanent condition for either eye in such persons, there is no adaptation, such as occurs with permanent monocularity. Monovision lenses, therefore, should NOT be used by pilots while flying an aircraft.

The Eyes Have It

As a pilot, you are responsible to make sure your vision is equal to the task of flying—that you have good near, intermediate, and distant visual acuity because:

• Distant vision is required for VFR operations including take-off, attitude control, navigation, and landing
• Distant vision is especially important in avoiding midair collisions
• Near vision is required for checking charts, maps, frequency settings, etc.
• Near and intermediate vision are required for checking aircraft instruments

Learn about your own visual strengths and weaknesses. Changes in vision may  occur imperceptibly or very rapidly. Periodically self-check your range of visual acuity by trying to see details at near, intermediate, and distant points. If you notice any change in your visual capabilities, bring it to the attention of your Aviation Medical Examiner (AME). And, if you use corrective glasses or contacts, carry an extra pair with you when you fly. Always remember: Vision is a pilot’s most important sense.

KEY POINTS

• The sharpest distant focus is only within a one-degree cone.
• Outside of a 10° cone, visual acuity drops 90%.
• Scan the entire horizon, not just the sky in front of your aircraft.
• You are 5 times more likely to have a midair collision with an aircraft flying in the same direction than with one flying in the opposite direction.
• Avoid self-imposed stresses such as self-medication, alcohol consumption, smoking, hypoglycemia, sleep deprivation, and fatigue.
• Do not use monovision contact lenses while you are flying an aircraft.
• Use supplemental oxygen during night flights above 5,000 ft MSL.
• Any pilot can experience visual illusions. Always rely on your instruments to confirm your visual perceptions during flight.

Medical Facts for Pilots Publication: AM-400-98/2 (revised 8/02) Written by: Melchor J. Antuñano, M.D. Prepared by: Federal Aviation Administration Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Aerospace Medical Education Division

Does this story sound familiar?

It’s Sunday morning, the last day of a three-day trip. You have four hours of flying ahead of you to get back home, but something about the air conditioner last night has left you with stuffy nose and sinuses this morning. You know from your training and experience that flying with congested upper airways is not a good thing. As it turns out, one of the others on the trip has some new over-the-counter sinus pills that are “guaranteed” to unstop your breathing passages and let you fly without any worries about the congestion. Should you take the medication?

Another scenario

You and your spouse are on the second leg of a five-leg, cross-country flight. While visiting relatives, you stayed up late at the party they threw in your honor, ate too much, and the next morning your stomach feels sort of queasy. Your spouse, a non-pilot, offers you a common motion-sickness pill prescribed by her doctor. Should you take the medication?

Get the facts

Just like any other decision (equipment, weather, etc.) that you must make when you fly, you should know all the facts before you can answer this question. There are several things that you need to know and take into account before you make the go/no-go decision. Add these to your check list:

• First, consider the underlying condition that you are treating. What will be the consequences if the medication doesn’t work or if it wears off before the flight is over? A good general rule to follow is not to fly if you must depend on the medication to keep the flight safe. In other words, if the untreated condition is one that would prevent safe flying, then you shouldn’t fly until the condition improves — whether you take the medication or not.
• Second, you must consider your reaction to the medication. There are two broad categories of medication reactions. One is a unique reaction based on an individual’s biological make-up. Most people don’t have such reactions but anyone can, given the right medication. Because of this, you should NEVER fly after taking any medication that you have not taken before. It is not until after you have taken the medication that you will find out whether you have this uncommon and unexpected reaction to the medication.
• Third, consider the potential for adverse reactions, or side effects — unwanted reactions to medications. This type of reaction is quite common, and the manufacturer of the medication lists these on the label. You MUST carefully read all labeling. If you don’t have access to the label, then don’t fly while using the medication.

Look for such key words such as light-headedness, dizziness, drowsiness, or visual disturbance. If these side effects are listed or if the label contains a warning about operating motor vehicles or machinery, then you should not fly while using the medication. Side effects can occur at any time, so even if you’ve taken the same medication in the past without experiencing side effects, they could still occur the next time. For this reason, you must never fly after taking a medication with any of the above-noted side effects.

If you must take over-the-counter medications,

• Read and follow the label directions.
• If the label warns of significant side effects, do not fly after taking the medication until at least two dosing intervals have passed. For example, if the directions say to take the medication every 6 hours, wait until at least 12 hours after the last dose to fly.
• Remember that you should not fly if the underlying condition that you are treating would make you unsafe if the medication fails to work.
• Never fly after taking a new medication for the first time.
• As with alcohol, medications may impair your ability to fly—even though you feel fine.
• If you have questions about a medication, ask your aviation medical examiner.
• When in doubt, don’t fly.

Prescription Medications

When your treating physician prescribes a medication for you, be sure to ask about possible side effects and the safety of using the medication while flying. Since most of their patients are not pilots, many physicians don’t think about the special needs of pilots when they prescribe medication. You must also discuss the medical condition that is being treated. You may want to ask your physician to contact your aviation medical examiner to discuss the implications of flying with the medical condition and the medication.

When your pharmacy fills the prescription, let the pharmacist know that you are a pilot. Pharmacists are experts in medication side effects and can often provide advice that supplements the information that your physician gives you. The pharmacist will provide you with written information about your medication. You should treat this just like the label of an over-the-counter medication mentioned above. Read, understand, and follow the information and instructions that are given with the medication. Never hesitate to discuss possible problems with your physician, pharmacist, or aviation medical examiner.

The Bottom Line

What you must remember about medications

Sometimes…

…you will develop a medical condition that is not safe to fly with. Whether you take a medication for the condition or not, you should wait to fly until the condition is either gone or significantly improved.

…you will have an ongoing (chronic) medical condition that your physician has prescribed a medication to treat. You should discuss the medical condition and treatment with your physician, pharmacist, and aviation medical examiner and make your flying decision based on their advice.

…you will have a medical condition that makes you uncomfortable but does not impair your ability to safely fly. If flying is very important, you may take either over-the-counter medications or prescription medications — within the guidelines suggested above.

Flying is important for many reasons. Not one of these reasons, however, is worth risking your life or the lives of those around you. Treat all medications with caution, and you’ll be around to become one of the “old” pilots.

MEDICAL FACTS FOR PILOTS Publication OK05-0005 Written by: Steve Carpenter, MD Prepared by: Federal Aviation Administration Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Aerospace Medical Education Division